Area: TIMSS

Assessing inconsistent responding in digital and paper formats: A replication study using the TIMSS 2023 Confidence in Mathematics scale in Ireland

Published in: Frontiers in Psychology

Abstract:

This study replicates and extends previous research on inconsistent responding in mixed-worded scales. Using a posttest-only experimental design, we examine the prevalence of inconsistent responding on the TIMSS 2023 Confidence in Mathematics Scale by comparing randomly equivalent digital and paper questionnaire administrations in Ireland. Two detection methods are employed: Mean Absolute Difference and Factor Mixture Analysis. Results indicate slightly higher rates of inconsistent responding in digital than in paper administration formats across most comparisons. Also, fourth-grade students exhibited higher rates of inconsistent responding compared to eighth-grade students. The study further investigates the role of student characteristics in predicting inconsistent responding. Among student background and digital-specific variables considered in binary logistic regression models, mathematics achievement was the only systematic negative predictor of inconsistent responding, explaining most of the variance, especially in younger students. This study highlights the importance of considering administration mode in large-scale assessments and provides implications for survey methodology, especially as digital testing becomes more widespread.

Konstantinidou, E., Pitsia, V., Clerkin, A., & Michaelides, M. P. (2026). Assessing inconsistent responding in digital and paper formats: a replication study using the TIMSS 2023 Confidence in Mathematics scale in Ireland. Frontiers in Psychology, 17, 1817706. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817706

The home learning environment of students in Ireland: New findings from TIMSS 2023

This report focuses on the home learning environment of Fourth Class and Second Year students in Ireland using data from TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) 2023. It describes findings about students’ socioeconomic status, the availability of selected home resources for learning and home possessions, digital resources at home and use of digital resources for learning, parental education and occupation, home language, early childhood learning and skills, and the attitudes and expectations towards education of parents and students. These data are examined at a nationally representative level and for key subgroups of students: by gender, socioeconomic status, and school DEIS (Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools) status. Implications for policymakers in the Irish national context are discussed.

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Continuity and change in Ireland’s schools and classrooms: TIMSS 2011–2023

This report provides a comprehensive analysis of developments in schools, classrooms, and the teaching and learning of mathematics and science at primary and post-primary levels in Ireland between 2011 and 2023. Drawing on data from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), collected from students, teachers, and school principals, the report examines trends in school composition, resources, and learning environments. It also explores the organisation and delivery of mathematics and science instruction, assessment practices, instructional challenges, and the integration of digital devices in teaching and learning. These findings are contextualised within national education policies and initiatives, highlighting how Ireland’s education system has adapted to changing pedagogical, technological, and societal expectations. By tracing patterns of continuity and change, the report provides valuable insights into the evolving educational landscape and provides a robust evidence base to inform future policy, practice, and evaluation in mathematics and science education.

e-Appendices associated with this publication: Chapter 2, Chapter 3, Chapter 4, Chapter 5, Chapter 6

 

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Trends in students’ school experiences and attitudes towards mathematics and science: TIMSS 2015–2023

This report describes the school experiences and attitudes of Fourth Class and Second Year students in Ireland. Drawing on data from the 2023 cycle of the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), it delves into the experiences of students in relation to their attendance at school, sense of belonging, and experiences of bullying. Also discussed in the report are students’ attitudes towards mathematics and science; in particular, the extent to which students like learning, feel confident, and value mathematics and science. A key feature of this report is that it examines trends in students’ experiences and attitudes across the three most recent cycles of TIMSS (2015, 2019 and 2023). The findings point towards some noteworthy changes in Irish students’ experiences and attitudes over time. Finally, some conclusions and implications for policymakers in Ireland are outlined.

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Environmental knowledge and attitudes in Ireland’s schools: Findings from TIMSS 2023

This report presents findings for Ireland for two aspects of students’ environmental awareness that were captured for the first time in the 2023 cycle of TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study). These are (i) students’ environmental knowledge – a subscale of the science assessment, drawing on selected items that are related to environmental and climate issues – and (ii) students’ attitudes towards environmental preservation. The report presents data for Fourth Class (primary) and Second Year (post-primary) students, and also describes environmentally relevant practices and attitudes of their parents, teachers, and principals, as recorded via questionnaires. The findings, which are novel in an Irish context, are discussed with reference to the broader national policy context of environmental awareness in schools.

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How Large-Scale Assessments Have Informed Education Policy in Ireland

Published in: IEA Compass: Briefs in Education

Abstract:

In recent decades, large-scale assessments in Ireland have revealed consistent trends, phases of change, and some surprises. This Compass Brief explores how data from large-scale assessments informed Ireland’s National Literacy and Numeracy Strategy 2011–2020, particularly regarding priorities, target-setting, and monitoring. It also examines how related initiatives including curriculum redevelopment and standardized testing reform have reflected large-scale assessment findings. Looking ahead, we outline how large-scale assessments can inform Ireland’s next National Strategy to 2033, which encompasses digital literacy along with literacy and numeracy. More broadly, using Ireland as an example, we identify important issues for policymakers in other countries to consider when using ILSA (international large-scale assessment) data within their own national contexts.

Clerkin, A., & Delaney, E. (2025). How Large-scale Assessments Have Informed Education Policy in Ireland. IEA Compass: Briefs in Education #26. IEA. https://www.iea.nl/sites/default/files/2025-01/CB26-LSA-Data-Informing-Policy-Ireland.pdf

Computer-based testing in Ireland, 2005-2024: Challenges, lessons learned, and future possibilities.

Published in: E-testing and computer-based assessment: CIDREE Yearbook 2024

Abstract:

This chapter traces the use of computer-based testing in schools in Ireland in two contexts: international large-scale assessments (ILSAs) (since 2005) and national standardised testing (since 2016). Learning gleaned from Ireland’s participation in computer-based ILSAs informed the development of a bespoke online platform for administering and scoring standardised tests (the ERC Drumcondra Online Testing System [ERC DOTS]). Conversely, knowledge about schools’ use of ERC DOTS has informed Irish approaches in subsequent ILSA cycles. Across ILSAs and standardised testing, recurrent challenges of computer-based testing are identified, including wide variation in: (i) education technology infrastructure in schools, and (ii) students’ prior experiences using this for schoolwork. Although common to primary and post-primary settings, infrastructural challenges were most apparent at primary level while differences in students’ experience were most pronounced below Grade 3. Adaptations and solutions trialled are discussed. Looking ahead, further possibilities of computer-based testing, including enhanced accessibility, additional item types, and adaptive testing, are considered.

Delaney, E., O’Flaherty, A., Perkins, R., Clerkin, A., & Cunningham, R. (2024). Computer-based testing in Ireland, 2005-2024: Challenges, lessons learned, and future possibilities. In B. Ranđelović et al. (eds), E-testing and computer-based assessment: CIDREE Yearbook 2024. CIDREE. https://www.cidree.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/cidree_yearbook-2024.pdf

TIMSS 2023: Insights into mathematics and science achievement in Ireland

This report presents the achievement results for Ireland in the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2023. TIMSS assesses the mathematical and scientific knowledge and skills of students in Fourth Grade and Eighth Grade (Fourth Class and Second Year in Ireland). TIMSS is a study of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) and has been conducted every four years since 1995. TIMSS 2023 is the eighth cycle of the study and included 656,360 students from 65 countries.

This national report focuses on trends in overall achievement in Ireland, as well as the distribution of achievement (performance at various percentiles), student performance at the TIMSS International Benchmarks, relative strengths and weaknesses on the TIMSS content and cognitive domains, and teachers’ reports of curriculum coverage. Performance in Ireland is explored in the context of selected countries; compared with previous cycles of TIMSS where data are available (since 2011 for Fourth Class and since 2015 for Second Year); and, where applicable, examined by gender and by socioeconomic status at both individual level and at school level (DEIS status).

TIMSS 2023 also marks Ireland’s transition from paper-based to digital testing, as part of which Ireland completed a national mode effect study to examine the extent to which any differences in student achievement exist between digital and paper testing. Initial findings from this mode effect study are also presented.

Finally, some conclusions and implications for policymakers in Ireland are outlined.

e-Appendix associated with this publication – download

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An in-depth analysis of the relative strengths and weaknesses of students in Ireland in mathematics and science in TIMSS 2019

This report is aimed at informing the work of teachers, school leaders, teacher educators, and curriculum developers in Ireland. It describes in detail the performance of Fourth Class (primary) and Second Year (post-primary) students on a range of mathematics and science topics and test items. In interpreting the data presented here from the TIMSS 2019 study (the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study), students’ performance is discussed with reference to relevant aspects of the Irish curricula for mathematics and science, and to international comparisons of student performance.

The findings presented here build on the initial national report on TIMSS 2019 (Perkins & Clerkin, 2020), which described student performance in mathematics and science in terms of average achievement, distributions of achievement among higher- and lower-achieving students, gender differences, benchmarks of performance (Low, Intermediate, High, or Advanced), and high-level
descriptions of performance on the TIMSS cognitive and content domains. This report expands on the latter aspect by providing a detailed examination of Fourth Class and Second Year students’ performance on the TIMSS content domains and, in particular, on their constituent subdomains and topic areas.

Associated e-appendices

 

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Strengths and Weaknesses in Maths and Science at Fourth Class

Strengths and Weaknesses in Maths and Science at Second Year

Trends in educational inequalities in Ireland’s primary schools: an analysis based on TIMSS data (2011-2019).

Published in:  Large Scale Assessments in Education

 

Abstract:

Background

Socioeconomic characteristics are persistently and systematically related to academic outcomes, despite long-standing efforts to reduce educational inequality. Ireland has a strong policy focus on alleviating educational disadvantage and has seen significant improvements in mathematics and science performance in recent years. This study investigates patterns of socioeconomic inequalities in 4th grade students’ performance in mathematics and science between 2011 and 2019. Two measures of inequality are examined: (i) inequality of achievement, i.e., the degree of variability in student performance and (ii) inequality of opportunity, i.e., the extent to which student performance is related to background characteristics.

Methods

Data for 4th-grade students in Ireland from TIMSS 2011, TIMSS 2015 and TIMSS 2019 were used. Mathematics and science achievement were the main outcome measures. The home resources for learning index was used as a proxy for student-level socioeconomic status. School-level socioeconomic status was examined according to schools’ participation in the Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools (DEIS) programme, which is the Department of Education’s main policy initiative addressing educational disadvantage. Descriptive and multilevel regression analyses were conducted to explore variability in student performance and to investigate the variance in achievement explained by socioeconomic factors, across cycles and subjects.

Results

Between 2011 and 2015, between-student and between-school differences in mathematics and science performance became smaller, as shown by the decrease in standard deviations and the intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). This points to reduced inequality of achievement. Between 2015 and 2019, a small increase in inequality of achievement was observed.

Regarding inequality of opportunity, students’ home resources for learning and school disadvantaged status were statistically significantly related to mathematics and science achievement across all three cycles. Overall variance explained by these two variables increased from 2011 to 2019. This points towards increasing inequality of opportunity over the period examined.

Performance gaps between disadvantaged and non-disadvantaged schools have been reduced over time; however, the relationship between home resources for learning and achievement appears to have strengthened. Findings were consistent for both subjects.

Conclusions

The findings indicate that improvements in overall performance do not necessarily reflect improved equality. Ireland’s improvements in average mathematics and science performance between 2011 and 2015 were accompanied by reduced inequality of achievement. Performance differences between disadvantaged and non-disadvantaged schools have been reduced over time, suggesting that the DEIS policy is meeting its goal of narrowing achievement gaps based on concentrations of educational disadvantage. However, inequality of opportunity linked to student-level socioeconomic factors (i.e., home resources for learning) appears to have increased over time. These findings are valuable in the context of measuring and tracking educational inequalities.

Duggan, A., Karakolidis, A., Clerkin, A., Gilleece, L., & Perkins, R. (2023). Trends in educational inequalities in Ireland’s primary schools: an analysis based on TIMSS data (2011-2019). Large Scale Assessments in Education, 11(39). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-023-00188-2

Boys’ underachievement in mathematics and science: An analysis of national and international assessment data from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Published in: Large-scale Assessments in Education

Abstract:

Boys in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia consistently and significantly underperform compared to girls across different grades and subjects, forming one of the largest gender gaps in student achievement in the world. Saudi Arabia offers a unique setting in which boys and girls attend separate schools on a universal basis starting from grade 1. This means that boys and girls are educated only by male and female teachers, respectively, in effect inhabiting parallel education systems. In this context, this study examines the factors that are associated with student achievement in mathematics and science in grades 4 and 8 and the extent to which these associations are different for boys and girls, in an effort to gain insights into boys’ underachievement in mathematics and science in Saudi Arabia. The paper employs data from two recent large-scale assessments of education: Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2019 and Saudi Arabia’s National Assessment of Learning Outcomes (NALO) 2018. A series of hierarchical two-level linear regression models showed that in grade 4, school climate was more strongly associated with boys’ compared with girls’ achievement in both mathematics and science, with boys attending schools of poorer school climate having a considerably lower performance compared with girls attending such schools. The findings also indicated that although greater literacy and numeracy readiness was linked with higher science achievement among boys and girls, grade 4 boys tended to benefit more from this readiness than girls. In addition, the results show that student absenteeism in grade 4 is particularly strongly associated with decreases in mathematics achievement among boys. In grade 8, significant interactions between gender and the extent to which students feel confident in science, the degree of schools’ emphasis on academic success, and teachers’ age are observed. The paper concludes by discussing some of the implications of these findings for educators and policy makers in Saudi Arabia.

Elsayed, M., Clerkin, A., Pitsia, V., Aljabri, N., & al-Harbi, K. (2022). Boys’ underachievement in mathematics and science: An analysis of national and international assessment data from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Large-scale Assessments in Education, 10 (23). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-022-00141-9

An examination of science achievement and school compositional effects in Ireland using TIMSS data.

Published in: European Journal of Educational Research

Abstract:

Recent educational policy initiatives in Ireland have focused on improving outcomes in reading and mathematics among students, particularly those experiencing educational disadvantage. However, science achievement in Irish primary schools has received much less research attention, especially in the context of educational disadvantage. This article examines science achievement and its relationship to school compositional effects in primary schools at the national level, including school-average indicators of the school context, as well as examining factors associated with science achievement in three distinct categories of schools (those with high, moderate, or minor levels of educational disadvantage). The data are drawn from the Fourth grade Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2015 database for Ireland. Multilevel analyses were implemented in a stepwise manner. Findings suggest the relevance of school contexts with regard to science achievement. Before including school-level contextual variables, students from ‘minor disadvantaged’ schools achieved significantly higher science scores than students from schools with ‘moderate’ or ‘high’ levels of disadvantaged. However, this difference disappears after controlling for predictors at the school level. The findings highlight the importance of the home environment, including early numeracy activities and skills before children start school. Results are discussed with regard to educational policy and educational practice in Ireland.

Nonte, S., Clerkin, A., & Perkins, R. (2022). An examination of science achievement and school compositional effects in Ireland using TIMSS data. European Journal of Educational Research, 11(4), 2523-2536. https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.11.4.2523

TIMSS 2019: Ireland’s results in mathematics and science

Students’ perspectives on learning mathematics and science: Results from TIMSS 2015 in Ireland

The home learning environment in Ireland: Insights from TIMSS 2015

Pre-school numeracy play as a predictor of ‎children’s ‎attitudes towards ‎mathematics at ‎age 10‎.

Published in: Journal of Early Childhood ‎Research

Abstract:

Numeracy activities in early childhood have been linked to children’s mathematical performance in subsequent years. However, few studies have examined associations between early numeracy play and children’s subsequent attitudes towards mathematics. This study draws on the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2011 assessment to provide a retrospective snapshot of pre-school numeracy play reported by the parents of 10-year-old children (N = 4560). Most children were found to have engaged frequently in some form of early numeracy activity. However, children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds had less regular engagement with numeracy play, while spatial play (e.g. building blocks) was less common among girls. The extent to which children engaged in pre-school numeracy play was significantly associated with greater confidence and (for children from higher socioeconomic backgrounds) liking of mathematics at age 10, controlling for other factors. The results highlight socioeconomic and gendered differences in children’s early activities about which policy-makers, educators and parents should be aware. They also suggest the potential role of numeracy play in fostering positive attitudes towards mathematics, which should be considered amid efforts to increase participation in science, technology, engineering and maths domains.

Clerkin, A. & Gilligan, K. (2018). Pre-school numeracy play as a predictor of ‎children’s ‎attitudes towards ‎mathematics at ‎age 10‎. Journal of Early Childhood ‎Research, 16 (3), 319-334. ‎DOI: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1476718X18762238

Using international assessments to inform education policy in Ireland.

Published in: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference of the ‎UNESCO Regional Center for Educational Planning

Abstract:

Ireland has participated in several large-scale international assessments in recent years, including TIMSS and PIRLS at primary level and TIMSS, PISA, ICCS and TALIS at post-primary. These assessments (together with complementary national research programmes) have, to varying degrees, been used to identify particular strengths and weaknesses in the Irish education system and to inform the development of educational policy. This paper presents an overview of Ireland’s experience with international assessments. Recent findings show significant improvements in performance on certain indicators, particularly at primary level and among lower-achieving students. However, these studies also show that the performance of higher-achieving students in Ireland is lower than might be expected, and that some weaknesses persist; for example, in students’ ability to demonstrate higher-order mathematical reasoning or problem-solving skills, and in primary students’ science achievement. The response of policymakers to these findings is discussed in light of the utility of participation in international assessments, cautions in interpreting their results appropriately, and the broader issue of what international assessments should and should not be used for.

Clerkin, A. (2017). Using international assessments to inform education policy in Ireland. ‎In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference of the ‎UNESCO Regional Center for Educational Planning. Dubai: Regional Center for Educational Planning. http://www.erc.ie/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Clerkin-2017-Using-international-assessments-to-inform-education-policy-in-Ireland.pdf

National Schools, international contexts: Beyond the PIRLS and TIMSS 2011 test results

PIRLS and TIMSS 2011: Technical report for Ireland

PIRLS & TIMSS 2011: Reading, mathematics and science outcomes for Ireland

The ERC publishes a periodic newsletter, eolas ón ERC, to keep stakeholders updated on research publications, ongoing projects in schools and standardised testing.